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Studies of the simplest possible clocks have revealed their fundamental limitations as well as insights into the nature of time.
(wow) Words Of Wonders Level 2013 Answers
In 2013, a physics student named Paul Erker scoured books and articles looking for an explanation of what a clock is. Albert Einstein famously said: “Time is what a clock measures.” Erker hoped that a deeper understanding of clocks could inspire new insights into the nature of time.
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But he found that physicists did not care much about the basic principles of chronology. They tended to ignore weather information. “I'm very unhappy with the way the literature has handled the clock so far,” Erker said recently.
The novice physicist began to think about what a clock is – what is needed to tell the time. He had some initial ideas. He then moved to Barcelona in 2015 for his Ph.D. There, a whole group of physicists, led by Professor Markus Huber, presented Erker's questions. Huber, Erker and their colleagues specialize in quantum information theory and quantum thermodynamics, fields related to information flow and energy. They found that these theoretical frameworks, which underlie new technologies such as quantum computers and quantum engines, also provide an appropriate language for describing clocks.
“It dawned on us that a watch is actually a heat engine,” Huber explained to Zoom. Like an engine, the clock harnesses the flow of energy to perform work, producing exhaustion in the process. Motors use energy to move. They use it for hours to make calls.
Over the past five years, scientists have discovered the fundamental limits of timekeeping through studies of the simplest clocks imaginable. They traced new relationships between precision, information, complexity, energy and entropy – a quantity whose constant increase in the universe is linked to the arrow of time.
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These connections were purely theoretical until this spring, when experimental physicist Natalia Ares and her team at the University of Oxford reported hourly nanoscale measurements that strongly support the new thermodynamic theory.
Nicole Junger Halpern, a quantum thermodynamicist at Harvard University who was not involved in the latest work on the clock, called it “fundamental.” He believes these findings could lead to the design of efficient, autonomous quantum clocks to control operations in future quantum computers and nanorobots.
The clock's new perspective has already given new elements to the debate about time. “This line of work is fundamentally about the role of time in quantum theory,” says Junger Halpern.
“I think people don't understand how fundamental this is,” said Gerard Milburn, a quantum theorist at the University of Queensland in Australia who last year wrote a review of research on clock thermodynamics.
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The first thing to note is that almost everything is an hour. Garbage announces the days with its worst smell. Wrinkles show the years. “You can tell the time by measuring how cold your coffee is on the coffee table,” says Huber, now at the Technical University of Vienna and the Vienna Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information.
Early in their talks in Barcelona, Huber, Erker and their colleagues realized that a clock is anything that undergoes irreversible change: changes in which energy is spread between several particles or over a larger area. Energy tends to be wasted—and entropy, a measure of its dissipation, tends to increase—simply because there are many, many more ways to disperse energy than there are to concentrate it. This numerical asymmetry and the strange fact that energy started out so concentrated in the early universe is why energy now moves in ever more dispersed arrangements, one cup of iced coffee at a time.
Not only does the tendency for the sharp expansion of energy and the subsequent irreversible increase in entropy seem to point to the arrow of time, but according to Huber and company, this energy also counts by hours. “Irreversibility is really the key,” Huber said. “That shift in perspective is what we wanted to explore.”
Coffee is not a good watch. Like many irreversible processes, its interaction with the surrounding air is random. This means that to get an accurate estimate of the time interval, you need to average over long periods of time, which include many random collisions between coffee molecules and air. That's why we don't refer to coffee, rubbish or wrinkles as hours.
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Clock thermodynamicists discovered that we reserve that name for objects whose ability to measure time increases with periodicity: a mechanism that spans the intervals between times when irreversible processes occur. A good watch doesn't just change. He scores.
In 2017, Erker, Huber and their co-authors showed that better timing comes at a price: The more accurate the clock, the more energy it wastes and the more entropy it produces during the tick.
They found that an ideal clock—one that runs at perfect intervals—burns an infinite amount of energy and produces infinite entropy, which is not possible. Therefore, the accuracy of clocks is essentially limited.
Indeed, in their paper, Erker and his colleagues studied the accuracy of the simplest clock they could imagine: a quantum system made up of three atoms. A “hot” atom is connected to a heat source, a “cold” atom is connected to the environment, and a third atom, connected to both others, “senses” by performing excitations and decays. Energy enters the system from the heat source and triggers the tick, and when excess energy is released into the environment, entropy is created.
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The researchers calculated that the more entropy the clock produced, the more regular the ticks of this triatomic clock became. Given the well-known connection between entropy and information, this relationship between clock accuracy and entropy makes intuitive sense to us, Huber said.
Strictly speaking, entropy is a measure of the number of possible arrangements that a system of particles can be placed in. These probabilities increase when energy is more evenly distributed among multiple particles, which is why entropy increases when energy is dispersed. Furthermore, the American mathematician Claude Shannon, in his 1948 paper that founded information theory, showed that the entropy of information also follows inversely: the less information you have about a set of data, the greater the entropy, because there are more possible states. Data may be in
“There is a deep connection between entropy and information,” Huber said, “so any limit on the clock's entropy output must naturally correspond to a limit on information—including, he says, ‘information about past time.'
Earlier this year, theorists extended their three-atom clock model by adding complexity — mainly hot and extra cold atoms attached to the ticking atom. They showed that this added complexity allows a clock to focus the probability of a tick occurring into increasingly narrow time windows, thereby increasing the regularity and accuracy of the clock.
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Briefly, it is the irreversible increase in entropy that makes timekeeping possible, while periodicity and complexity increase clock performance. But before 2019, it wasn't clear how to check the team's equations or how simple quantum clocks would compare to the clocks on our walls.
At a conference dinner that year, Erker sat next to Anna Pearson, a PhD student from Oxford who had given a talk that day that interested him. Pearson worked on studies of a 50 nm thick vibrating membrane. In his lecture, he casually remarked that the membrane could be stimulated with white noise – a random combination of radio frequencies. The frequencies that resonate with the diaphragm stimulate its vibrations.
To Orcs, the noise sounded like a heat source and the vibrations like the ticking of a clock. He offered to cooperate.
Pearson's supervisor, Ares, was thrilled. He had already discussed with Milburn the possibility of the membrane working as a clock, but he had not heard of the new thermodynamic relations derived from other theorists, including the fundamental limit of accuracy. “We said: ‘We can certainly measure!' We can measure entropy production! We can measure ticks!” Ares said.
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A vibrating membrane is not a quantum system, but it is small and simple enough to allow accurate tracking of its motion and energy consumption. “We can tell how much the entropy changes from the energy loss in the circuit itself,” Ares said.
He and his team decided to test an important prediction from the paper by Erker et al. 2017: that there should be a linear relationship between entropy production and accuracy. It was unclear whether this relationship would hold for a larger classical clock such as a vibrating diaphragm. But when the data came in, “we saw the first graphs [and] we thought, wow, there's this linear relationship.”
The regularity of the diaphragm clock's vibrations is directly attributed to the amount of energy put into the system and the amount of entropy produced in it. The results show that the thermodynamic equations
