(wow) Words Of Wonders Level 2901 Answers – You are probably familiar with the modern processors manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices. But AMD processors started in 1975, when AMD introduced the Am2901. This chip was a type of processor called a chip processor: each chip processes only 4 bits, but multiple chips are combined to produce larger word sizes. This method was used in the 1970s and 1980s to create 16-bit, 36-bit, or 64-bit processors (for example), when the entire processor could not fit on one chip.
Chip die image of Am2901. This image shows the metal layers of the chip; Silicon is down. Near the edges of the die, small jumper wires connect the chip to external pins. (Click on the image for a higher resolution image.)
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The Am2901 chip became very popular, being used in systems ranging from the Battlezone2 video game to the VAX-11/730 laptop, from the Xerox Star workstation to the Magic 372 computer in the fast version of the F-16.3 La . A fighter. Processor. The Am2901C uses a logic family called emitter-coupled logic (ECL) for high performance. In this blog post, I disassembled the Am2901C chip, examined the fins under a microscope, and described the ECL circuits that make up this arithmetic logic unit.
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You may wonder how many chips can work to support arbitrary word lengths. The point is that a micro processor is a building block instead of a full processor, 6 and requires a separate circuit for the placement of instructions and system control. A chip (like the Am2910) tells the little bits what to do. Each machine instruction was divided into small steps called sub-instructions which were stored in the microcode ROM. Note that the computer’s instruction set was defined by the subcode, not the Am2901, so almost any instruction set can be used.
Bit processors were stuck between using a microprocessor chip and building computers with simple TTL chips. Building processors with TTL chips were faster than microprocessors at the time, but required boards full of chips. Using a smaller processor retained the speed advantage, but reduced the number of chips. The chip processor also offered more flexibility than the microprocessor, allowing the designer to customize the instruction set and other design features.
The figure below shows the Am2901 die, with key performance restrictions noted. 7 For this picture, I removed the metal layers so you can see the silicon and transistors. 8 The biggest on-chip performance limitation is the central register memory. The chip has sixteen 4-bit registers. (If you look closely, you can see 16 columns and 4 rows in the memory array.) To the left and right of the memory block are the memory controller circuits that read and write the memory.
Image of the Am2901 chip die with the main functional blocks written. The external circuit consists largely of buffers for converting the external TTL signal and the internal ECL signal.
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The chip’s Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations (addition or subtraction) or logical operations (AND, OR, Exclusive-OR). The first part of the ALU is a large block in the lower left corner of the chip; It has four rows because it is a 4-bit ALU. The ALU also has logic to produce the result of a general carry, using a fast technique called the bear lookahead. Finally, the output circuit processes and stores the quantity and sends it to the output pin.
The empty squares around the edge of the chip are pads that connect the chip to the outside world. Next to the cleaner are cables for sending and receiving signals. In particular, because the chip communicates with external circuits using TTL signals, but internally uses ECL wires, this circuit switches between TTL and ECL voltages.
On the left are two switches that can move the word slightly left or right. The Q register is a 4-bit register made up of flip-flops. Finally, the voltage reference circuit generates the correct voltage reference required by the ECL logic.
To see what’s on the chip, you usually have to wipe the plastic box with a dangerous acid. However, I bought an Am2901 chip that came in a ceramic package instead of plastic. By simply squeezing the seam of the chips, I separated the two halves of the chip, exposing the die inside. The silicon bead is a small square in the center of the chip. Thin jumper wires connect to the DPad’s front frame, which go to the chip’s outer 40 pins.
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I used a special type of microscope called a metallurgical microscope to take high-resolution images of the chip. The image below shows the AMD logo. Above is the connected wire that is connected to the pad. The chip has two layers of metal connecting the wires, seen on the right.
I combined multiple microscope images to create high-resolution images. I describe my process for creating matrix images here. I then removed the 8 metal layers and made another set of silicon images.
The image below is a close-up of the silicon showing four transistors and three resistors. Parts of silicon are “doped” to give them different properties, and different areas of doping are visible under a microscope. This chip is made of bipolar NPN transistors, unlike the MOS transistors in modern computers. The transistor on the left is labeled base (P-type silicon), emitter (N-type silicon) and collector (N-type silicon). The white rectangles are the connections between the silicon and the metal layer that was on top before it was removed. The two transistors on the right share one large collector. In this chip, it is common for many transistors to share the collector.
There are three resistors below. The resistor is produced by doping silicon to increase the resistance. Resistors in integrated circuits have poor accuracy. It is also relatively large; These transistors are the same size, while other resistors are larger. For these reasons, integrated circuit design tries to reduce the number of resistors.
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Logic circuits can be constructed in many ways. Almost all computers today use a family of logic called CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor), making gates with MOS transistors. In the era of small computers, TTL (transistor-transistor logic) was very popular. Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) was a family of fast, 10 but unusual logic. The disadvantage of ECL was its high power consumption. (The Cray-2 supercomputer circuits (1985) had to be immersed in a fluorine coolant because the ECL gates produced too much heat.)
Early versions of the Am2901 used TTL logic, but in 1979 AMD introduced a faster version, the Am2901C. The Am2901C uses ECL logic for internal speed, but supports TTL voltages externally, allowing it to be easily used in TTL computers. The Am2901C, the ECL version, is the one in this blog post.
ECL is based on a differential pair, similar to a circuit inside an operational amplifier. The idea behind differential torque (down) is that a constant current flows through the circuit. If the left input has a higher voltage than the right, the left transistor will turn on and more current will flow through the left branch. Conversely, if the right input has a higher voltage than the left, the right transistor will turn on and more current will flow through the right branch. (Remember that the emitters of the transistors are coupled, hence the name emitter-coupled logic.)
A different pair. If the left side (red) is high, most of the current flows through the left side. Conversely, if the correct voltage (blue) is high, more current flows in the correct direction.
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Some modifications convert different pairs into ECL gates. First, the voltage in one branch is set to the reference voltage, halfway between the “0” level and the “1” level. Therefore, if the input is higher than the reference voltage, it will be considered “1”, and the lower will be “0”. The output transistor (green) is then connected to the branch to produce the output by reducing the branch voltage. The circuit below is an inverter, because if the input is high, the current through the left resistor will pull the output low. To improve performance, the lower resistance is replaced by a current sink (purple), which consists of a transistor and a resistor.
ECL inverter. It depends on the differential torque and the additional output transistor (green) and the bias resistance changed by the alternating current circuit (purple). The upper right resistor can be omitted since no output is connected.
A more complex ECL gate can be created by adding more details. In the circuit below, a second input transistor (2) is added in parallel with transistor 1. Current will flow through resistor R1 if A or B input is 1 (ie higher than 1.
